|
Table of Contents
Introduction
According to legend, the first acknowledged kingdom in Korea emerged in 2333 BC. Tan'gun Wang'gom, the first great ruler of Korea, established his capital at Asadal (modern Pyongyang) and called his kingdom Choson, a name that means "Land of the Morning Calm." The Tan'gun legend not only reflects Korean ideals, but helped develop the pride of a people with a long history and an ancient culture. Through the centuries, Koreans have preserved this legend which became a source of spiritual comfort in times of crisis. Much of what Westerners find so irrational and inconsistent with legends such as this represents the whole foundation of Korean culture and is the key to understanding their history.
Chapter 1 In the Beginning
The migration of Neolithic nomads from central Asia and Siberia led to the gradual emergence of villages and small communities in Manchuria, China and Korea. Sedentary nomadic clans established agricultural settlements that later evolved into the first walled-town tribal states which set the mold for future social evolution on the Korean peninsula. Developments in China during the Warring States Period led to a buildup of tensions among emerging tribal states in China, Manchuria and Korea.
Chapter 2 Tales of Three Kingdoms
Alliances among Korea's tribal states gave rise to the kingdoms of Puyo and Koguryo. China conquered the Liaodong River basin and northern Korea to protect its northeastern frontier from the increasingly powerful northern steppe nomads. After the fall of the Chinese Wei Kingdom, Xiungnu nomads took control of northern China and the Liaodong region. Manchurian Xianbei tribes destroyed the northern kingdom of Puyo and battled Koguryo for control of the Liaodong region. Refugees from Puyo later formed the southern Korean kingdom of Paekche. The Kingdom of Silla emerged as a major aristocratic power in southeastern Korea. The Japanese kingdom of Yamato emerged as diplomatic relations developed among Korea's Three Kingdoms and China.
Chapter 3 Paekche and Silla
The powerful nation state of Koguryo dominated northern Korea and much of the Manchurian Plain, fighting China's Sui and Tang dynasties for both territory and independence. Battling Koguryo and each other, the kingdoms of Paekche and Silla competed for dominance on the peninsula, while the smaller Kaya League struggled to hold its own in the southern Naktong River basin. A major Paekche expedition to Kyushu, Japan, led to the creation of the Yamato Kingdom and the beginnings of a new cultural legacy. The Kingdom of Silla unified Korea and took on the cloak of Tang Chinese culture, eventually falling victim to the same internal problems that plagued China's great dynasties.
Chapter 4 Koryo and the Khitan
Numerous battles among Korea's Later Three Kingdoms led to the surrender of Silla and the collapse of Later Paekche. Wang Kon emerged from the fighting to unify Korea under the kingdom of Koryo. Khitan nomads in Manchuria conquered the Kingdom of Parhae and created the Liao Dynasty. Tense relations between the Khitan and Koryo overshadowed social and political developments under King T'aejo. The Khitan Liao Dynasty in Manchuria increased pressure on both Song China and Koryo from the north, but the newly formed state held on to its independence, strengthened its government and expanded its territory northward to the Yalu River.
Chapter 5 Koryo and the Mongols
In the aftermath of the Khitan invasion of Koryo, Jurchen tribes emerged to create the Jin dynasty in Manchuria. Jurchen warriors broke out of Manchuria to the southwest and conquered the Chinese Song Dynasty. The appearance of aristocratic factionalism in the Koryo government lead to widespread social turmoil in Korea, including a military revolt and numerous peasant uprisings. The emergence of Genghis Khan in Mongolia began a dramatic expansion of nomadic power in Central Asia and led to the conquest of the Jin Dynasty in the Liaodong region and a series of Mongol invasions into Song China and Manchuria.
Chapter 6 Koryo Under the Mongols
After subjugating the Jin Empire, Mongols invaded Korea and brought the peninsula under the umbrella of their own expanding empire. Faced with the Mongol onslaught, the government of Koryo fled to Kanghwa Island for refuge while peasants began openly resisting Mongol occupation of their country. Following a military revolt, the Ch'oe clan established a military dictatorship in Koryo. Kublai Khan conquered Song China and used Koryo in launching two failed invasions against Japan. The Mongols controlled the Koryo government through its "two kings" system, degraded the Koryo royal house and virtually erased any enhancement of royal authority.
Chapter 7 The Death of Koryo
The future of Koryo's highly centralized feudal society became inextricably tied to that of the Yuan Dynasty. The social and political philosophy of Neo-Confucianism took root in Korea and found adherents among a new class of young, highly educated and competent government administrators. China's Red Turban Rebellion threatened Mongol rule and quickly spread into Koryo. Soon after the Ming Dynasty replaced the Yuan in China, Kaesong's conservative pro-Mongol faction blocked reforms to protect its status. Koryo General Yi Song-gye led a coup that toppled the badly weakened Kaesong government and laid the foundation for the emergence of the Yi Dynasty.
Chapter 8 Choson
Confucian philosophy had a deep and lasting impact on Korea's social and political life. Following the formation of the Yi Dynasty, Choson established deeper relations with the neighboring countries of China and Japan. King T'aejo established a new Korean capital at Seoul and laid the foundation for a centralized Neo-Confucian government under an absolute monarchy. Despite Choson's rigidly stratified society and the ever-present political conflicts, Korea witnessed many new and exciting technological developments during the reigns of King T'aejong and King Sejong, including the creation of Han'gul, the Korean alphabet.
Chapter 9 A Centralized Society
Ming China's symbolic tributary system created a model for diplomatic relations and economic trade with Korea and Japan. As Korea expanded to its present day borders, attempts to reform society triggered clashes between the king and the Neo-Confucian literati which degenerated into bloody, vindictive government purges. Land use and tax reforms contributed to the emergence of powerful land owners and the impoverishment of Korean peasants. Court intrigues and the struggle for power in Korea gave rise to factionalism based on personalities. The nearly constant political infighting became a striking characteristic of Korean politics that lasted until the downfall of the Yi dynasty in the twentieth century.
Chapter 10 Political Turmoil
Korea's political atmosphere turned violent under the reign of Yonsan'gun, as the royal palace battled the government bureaucracy for prominence. The rising influence of the Neo-Confucian literati dramatically clashed with the entrenched power of conservative supporters of the king's rise to the throne. Yonsan'gun's tyrannical rule led to abuses of power and two vengeful and bloody government purges. As the purges continued under King Chungjong, open factional strife began in earnest with the Neo-Confucian literati gaining both power and influence in government.
Chapter 11 Western Encroachment
Under pressure from aggressive nomads along its northern frontiers and financially weakened at home, China turned inward just as Europe began its golden Age of Discovery. The voyages of Marco Polo and the closure of the Silk Road revived European interest in geography and cartography. Driven by curiosity and adventure, Portuguese explorers led Europe into the unknown world and opened the path to empire in India and expansion into China and Japan. With the door to the Orient opened, European sea power carried the Western world into East Asia in search of wealth.
Chapter 12 Japanese Invasions
Oda Nobunaga, Japan's first "super daimyo," emerged after the Onin War to control about one-third of the nation from Kyoto. Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued the unification process in Japan. Dreaming of Asian conquests, he ordered an invasion of Choson in 1592. Overpowered on land, Choson found its salvation in the brilliant battle tactics of Admiral Yi Sun-sin, whose navy constantly struck fear in the Japanese military. While the Yi government retreated north in the face of the Japanese threat, Choson's peasants formed guerilla groups and turned against the invaders. Just three years after China helped drive the Japanese army from Choson, while Japan and China talked peace, Hideyoshi launched a second invasion into Choson.
Chapter 13 The Hermit Kingdom
Japan's two invasions of Choson led to dramatic social and economic changes. The growing power of political factions fragmented Choson's aristocracy as reforms led to the emergence of a commercial economy. Japan's Tokugawa Shogunate reestablished trade relations with Choson and began the longest period of uninterrupted peace in Japanese history. The Jurchen in Manchuria built a powerful military state that threatened both Choson and the weakened Ming Dynasty in China. After subjugating Choson as a vassal state, the Manchus conquered northern China and established the Qing Dynasty, China's last imperial dynasty. After centuries of being a battleground for neighboring disputes, Choson sealed its northern border with Manchuria and withdrew into itself.
| 
